Female economy

Female economy The twenty first century has seen the elevated extension of the world economy. As years progress changes have been inevitable as issues such as the financial crisis wreak havoc with economies. Following this, researchers are focusing their studies on how best to penetrate the current market and emerge unscathed despite the prevalent challenges. It is from this point of view that Sayre and Silverstein (2009) sought to examine the place of women in todays market. In their article they explore the predicament facing women and companies due to the latters failure to acknowledge the power women possess. Women are increasingly dominating the worlds market and as drivers of the world economy, they demand attention from product and service companies. Estimated to control almost $20trillion in annual consumer expenditure, they are a neglected consumer group resulting in hefty untapped opportunities. The article indicates that a majority of women feel highly underserved and sidelined by product companies. This is despite the current and growing stature of women in the society. Women have become quite powerful due to the effects of education, leadership opportunities and career opportunities. It is no longer a world where most women were uneducated; currently women dominate half of global students and this enhances their capacities for choice of consumption. Furthermore, most women are seeking to advance their career opportunities and employment is accompanied by elements of dynamic consumption needs. In the study, it is eminent that women face challenges in managing their households and finances, having too many demands and the lack of enough time for themselves. Right here is a loophole for companies to capitalize and serve women with regard to their specific needs. Sayre and Silverstein (2009) emphasize that companies must learn the strategies of selling to women especially bec ause their dominance is bound to accrue large profits. A comprehensive research study requires a concrete research problem. In Sayre and Silverstein (2009), the researchers aimed at understanding how women feel about their work and lives and how they were served by businesses. Even though the stated research problem detailed indicated the appropriate form of research methodology to be used it did not indicate the overall subject of the study. Walliman (2006, p.67) argue that hypotheses used in constructing the research problem should emerge from logical deductions from a background research of the topic. However, the article does not use ample background research as no literature review is evident in the study. In addition, while the study is keen to address the fact that women dominate todays market the research problem does not draw a connection to this fact. The research problem guides one into conceptualizing the appropriate form of research methodology and as the article progresses it is evident that qualitative methods were most ap propriate. The study chose to use qualitative research methods in understanding womens needs and their feelings on the services offered by businesses. Qualitative research is suitable in such studies which seek to understand issues comprehensively and whose qualitative data cannot accomplish the same. As asserted by Ragin (1994, p.83) qualitative research emphasizes on in-depth knowledge and a refined elaboration of images, concepts and overall perceptions. In the study, the qualitative research methods used were the questionnaire and interview methods. All these methods were web based with most of the participants being required to access web services and undertake the interviews. The web survey posted in the consultancy groups website attracted more than 12 000 women from a vast range of geographies. The survey contained a questionnaire with 120 questions about different aspects of womens lives. Such aspects included homes, careers, education, relationships, interests and activities among oth ers. This form of survey gives anonymity to participants who then feel uncompromised in answering the questions given. In addition it targets a wide range of participants and thus increases the validity of research results as participants are diverse and unbiased. The web survey was in tandem with the research goal as the questions addressed the research problem and even heightened the researchs effect through a diversified response. As a qualitative research method, the interview presents a unique form of conversation where the interviewer seeks to understand various items in the participants point of view. Internet interviewing provides for a suitable interviewing technique. With the similar advantage of anonymity, the researcher can seek answers from participants through email and other chat services. The study used internet interviewing in their study of women working in various organizations. Hewson (2003, p.45) observes that internet interviewing may limit the researcher from accessing nonverbal information expressed by participants. In a situation where the research clearly embarks on a mission of comprehensiveness, this might be a shortfall in the study. Interview conversations need to be highly structured and this prompts researchers to design specific interview questions in order to guide the process. In any research study, it is expected that various procedures are undertaken as a way of ensuring the comprehensiveness and credibility of the study. At the onset of research preparations are made on how to acquire research participants. While the article underlies the target of the survey to be women, it fails to stipulate protocol for sampling. This open web survey received responses from women and the conducted interviews were similarly addressed to women. The articles failure to outline the sampling procedure lives room for speculation and skepticism on the researchs validity and reliability. Regardless of the sampling misdemeanors, this open form of web survey attracted a sample of participants who fit in with the research outcomes perfectly. Ethical considerations in carrying out research are an integral part of any research study. Its importance is quite pertinent and omitting it may lead to dire consequences. In the article, there are no indications of any ethical underpinnings to the study. The web survey does not provide any contractual agreement detailing the object of the research and reasons for research. Whether in the web survey or interviews carried out by the researcher, they are required to make the potential research participant understand their role in the research process. Bell (2005, p.45) argues that it is insufficient when the interviewer just displays the contract and expects the participant to sign it. Seeking consent of the participants is important and the article has no evidence that these measures were taken. In the view of a lack of consent or infringed privacy, researchers are liable to facing legal repercussions which may waylay their research. Moreover, as an interviewer it is crucial to ask questions in a respectful manner which takes into consideration the various characteristics of the participants. Dealing with internet interviews may require one to infer on the appropriate time for the interview and researchers should take any recommendations respectfully. In cases of any shortcomings caused by ineffective ethical considerations, the article should have stated so. Despite this, the web survey allowed participants to engage in the study at their own time and the questions used were in no way inappropriate. Following the study the article chose six archetypes which were observed to be common amongst respondents. It is through these common characteristics that the data collected was analyzed. The data analysis is not clearly detailed as the procedures undertaken in compiling and evaluating the various responses are not outlined. The article immediately embarks on presenting the research results and findings. The six archetypes included fast-tracker, pressure cooker, relationship focused; managing on her own, fulfilled empty nester and making ends meet (Silverstein, 2009, p.49). With reference to each of these aspects, the article expounds on the factors which make women the largest consumers with regard to the products from the specific industries. Using these segments was instrumental in establishing the kind of consumers marketers in companies should aim to target. It is similarly advantageous to understand what consumers are looking for in the market and their specific needs. The key segments were well presented in a chart describing their income levels, age and stages of life. The article also extensively presents the portion of the population each type of women occupied and the percentage of overall income possessed. The article further indicated the priorities and needs of the women in each segment which gives marketers an idea of the most appropriate consumer goods for them. In the industries which presented the largest opportunities like food, fitness, beauty and apparel, women voiced their views on their experiences with these industries. For instance, women were seen to value fitness highly but it always tends to take a backseat in their lives. The reason behind this was the fact that most women often prioritized other peoples needs before their own. Thus, the lack of time provided an opportunity for fitness centers to derive fitness sessions which were less time consuming. On the other hand, the study also included responses on such industries as financial services and healthcare where women felt neglected and underserved. Considering that womens income margins are quite high and they continue to rise, they are required to access effective financial services. Women cited disrespect, stereotyping, poor advice and contradictory policies as some of the characteristics of financial institutions. It was clear that these institutions needed to review their approaches and embark on a marketing strategy aimed at keeping women customers happy. The conclusions made in the article are derived from a logical and comprehensive evaluation of the research findings. The article draws from insights on the future outlook of the worlds economy and the effects of the ever growing female workforce. The future of most companies lies at the hand of women as they make up the majority of the worlds consumer spenders. Furthermore, as the research sought to answer the research questions it studies various segments which define women and their consumer needs. As the article concludes that women will continue to experience challenges in such areas, companies must target the specific needs of women. Women are seen to respond to services which encourage love, care and respect which provide a clear picture of what companies should do in order to accrue more sales. The article has in no way illustrated limitations for the research which indicates a subjective form of study. It is crucial to indicate shortcomings of a study and cite areas where mo re research should be carried out. Nevertheless, the article is indeed quite informative and provides ample insights for marketers and companies dealing with women consumers. References Bell, J. (2005). Doing your Research Project: A Guide for First Time Researchers in Educationand Social Science. Berkshire: Open University Press. Hewson, C. (2003). Internet Research Methods: A Practical Guide for the Social and Behavioral Science. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Ragin, C.C. (1994). Constructing Social Research: The Unity and Diversity of Method. California: Pine Forge Press. Sayre, K., and Silverstein, M.J. (September, 2009). The Female Economy Harvard Business Review. hbr.org Walliman, N. (2006). Social Research Methods. London: Sage Publications Ltd.

Walking Dead Syndrome

THE WALKING DEAD SYNDROME English 150 Instructor: S. Jone November 7, 2011 The Walking Dead Syndrome Introduction The Walking Dead syndrome is considered a rare disease. I believe everyone in this existence has a purpose on this vast place we call earth. However, there are people diagnosed with a syndrome who believe they have no soul or convinced themselves they are dead. The â€Å"Walking Dead Syndrome† is also commonly known as â€Å"Cotard’s Syndrome†. In this paper, I will refer this syndrome as â€Å"Cotard’s syndrome†. Cotard’s syndrome is linked with other mental illnesses which could explain a person’s state of mind of feeling non-existent in society. I will further discuss eight aspects of this syndrome: defining the Walking Dead Syndrome, defining mental illness, description of several mental illnesses associated with this syndrome, classifications of Cotard’s syndrome, analysis of patients, diagnosis of syndrome, and types of treatments available for patients. Defining Walking Dead Syndrome or Cotard’s Syndrome Many people I discussed this topic with never heard of the â€Å"Walking Dead Syndrome†. The Walking Dead Syndrome was first created by French neurologist, Jules Cotard, hence, named the â€Å"Cotard’s Syndrome†. He was a French neurologist who first described this psychiatric condition. First reference to the syndrome was made in the year 1880, when Jules Cotard gave a lecture in Paris. In this lecture, he described various degrees of the syndrome, while he said that a person who resorts to despair and self-hatred begins in the early stages of this disorder. With deterioration, the person might go to the extent of denying the very existence of himself or herself. There are detached from the sense of existence of self (â€Å"Cotard Syndrome† 2010). Patients portray themselves similar to the concept of â€Å"zombies†. Hollywood has portrayed horror and science fiction based movies on â€Å"zombies† or the â€Å"walking dead†. In the movies, zombies are typically mean and fond of human flesh, they groan and cannot talk, have incredible strength, and display rotting flesh. A zombie is physically identical to a normal human being, but completely lacks conscious experience. If we suddenly lost our minds, or consciousness our bodies might continue to run on for a while, our hearts might continue to beat, we might breathe while asleep and digest food. But without the contribution made by minds, behavior could not show characteristically human features. In the Urban Dictionary, 1999-2011, a zombie is defined â€Å"as deceased human being who has partially returned to life due to undeterminable causes. The brain retains base facilities, namely gross motor function. In its near-mindless state, it grasps no remains of emotion, personality, or sensation of pain. In rare cases, some of the reanimated have reflexively preformed routine activities from their past lives†. The people diagnosed with Walking Dead Syndrome have similar portrayals including not having internal organs and smelling of rotting flesh. A hypothetical analogy can be explained when most of us have woken up after a really good night out. Our first drive in the morning was motivated by a desire for food and coffee. If we as a society experience a chemical or radiological contamination, we might be experiencing the hangover from hell. Our higher thought would be destroyed, the neural system would be degraded, and leave just the body running on its primary functions. Defining Mental Illness Since the beginning of man, I think there has been mental illness, and chemical imbalance generates a huge part, and some people just do not have the ability to use parts of their brain for reason and logic. According to to Sorrentino, Wilk, and Newmaster (2009), a mental illness can be: â€Å"caused by a combination of genetic, biological, personality, and environmental factors, is a disturbance in a person’s ability to cope with or adjust to stress; the person’s thinking, mood, and behaviours are affected, and functioning is impaired †¦mental illnesses affect people of all ages, culture, and educational and income levels. The onset of most mental illnesses occurs during adolescence and young adulthood† (p. 641). Most mental illnesses are brought on by the stresses of life, money, property, and consumption. Having a mental illness varies from person to person and if you cannot go about your day as you normally would due to a condition then it is a mental illness. An example would be having an â€Å"anxiety disorder†, and if you cannot leave your house anymore due to petrifying fear, then there is clearly a problem. Unless of course you cannot recognize that you are having problems and you are posing a threat to yourself or others, then you can be forcibly placed under the guidance of a psychologist. Mental illness can be contributed to either biological, psychological, and environmental factors. The biological factors can be attributed to genetics or â€Å"mental disorders tend to run in families, suggesting a hereditary factor†¦the number of close relatives a person has who suffer from depression or other mood disorders is the best predictor of the likelihood that the individual will develop a mood disorder† (Boyd, Johnson, Bee, 2009, p. 385). In addition, psychological aspects can be contributed to emotional, physical, or sexual abuse, and the environmental causes can be defined as a person living in poverty or substance abuse. Mental Illnesses Associated with Cotard’s Syndrome People diagnosed with the â€Å"Cotard’s Syndrome† have been treated for a mental illness or combination of bi-polar, delusions, schizophrenia, and schizoaffective disorder, to name a few. The major mental illnesses are painful, pervasive, disruptive and usually disabling. Firstly, a â€Å"bi-polar disorder† is defined as â€Å"a brain disorder that causes unusual shifts in a person’s mood, energy, and ability to function† (Sorrentino, Wilk, Newsmaster, 2009, p. 651). Whereas, â€Å"delusions† are the â€Å"false beliefs that are firmly held† (Purse, 2011). An example is a person who has grandeur delusions or has paranoid tendencies. In the grandiose subtype, the person is convinced that he has some great talent or has made some important discovery, they have an inflated sense of self-worth. In addition, their delusions center on their own importance, such as believing that they have done or created something of extreme value or think they have a â€Å"special mission†. There is reference to another type of delusion known as â€Å"nihilistic delusions†. This type of delusion describes a person â€Å"focused on the individual’s body, including loss of body parts, being dead, or not existing at all† (Debruyne, Portzky, Peremans, & Audenaert, 2011). Furthermore, Cotard syndrome created a new type of depression which â€Å"is described as anxious melancholia, ideas of damnation or rejection, insensitivity to pain, delusions or nonexistence concerning one’s own body, and delusions of immorality† (Debruyne, Portzky, Peremans, & Audenaert, 2011). This type of delusion is a major attribute of Cotard’s syndrome. Thirdly, â€Å"schizophrenia† which â€Å"is an extremely complex mental health disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disturbances in thinking, and withdrawal from social activity† (Sorrentino, Wilk, Newsmaster, 2009, p. 55). News and entertainment media tend to link mental illnesses including schizophrenia to criminal violence. Most people with schizophrenia, however, are not violent toward others but are withdrawn and prefer to be left alone. Lastly, â€Å"schizoaffective disorder† is described as a â€Å"person having symptoms of both schizophrenic and bipolar disord er† (Purse, 2006). Some disorders will cause parts of the brain to stop performing their normal functions. These can leave people out of control and disoriented (not knowing what they themselves are doing). Classifications of Cotard’s Syndrome In its early stages, Cotard’s syndrome is characterized by vague feeling of anxiety with a varying time span from weeks to years. This anxious state gradually augments and can result in nihilistic delusions where denial of life or denial of body parts are the prominent features. The patient loses sense of reality. Despite the delusion of being dead, these patients show an increased tendency to automutilation (self harm) or suicidal behaviour. (Debruyne, Portzky, Peremans, and Audenaert, 2011). A case studying involving 100 patients, in Debruyne, Portzky, Van den Eynde, and Audenaert, (2009) reveal three types of Cotard’s syndrome. The first is a form of â€Å"psychotic depression† in which anxiety, melanchonlia, delusions of guilt, and auditory hallucinations are the more prominent features. The second class is â€Å"Cotard’s syndrome Type I†, which is associated with hypochondriac and nihilistic delusions. The third type is â€Å"Cotard’s syndrome Type II†, which includes anxiety, depression, delusions of immortality, nihilistic delusions and suicidal behaviour are characteristic features†. However, in Debruyne, Portzky, Peremans, and Audenaert, 2011, a case study conducted in 1999, identified three stages of Cotard’s syndrome. The first stage, germination stage, is characterized by important hypochondriac cenesthopathy and depressive mood. A diagnosis of Cotard’s syndrome cannot be made in this stage yet. In the blooming stage, the characteristic features of Cotard’s syndrome (nihilistic delusions, delusions of immorality together with anxiety and negativism) are seen. The last stage, the chronic stage is differentiated in two forms: one with persistent emotional disturbances (depressive type) and the second where depressive symptoms are less prominent (paranoid type) (as cited by Yamman, 1999). The two classifications described above have assisted in diagnosing of Cotard’s syndrome. The similar features displayed are nihilistic delusions, depressive mood, and anxiety. Analysis This syndrome does not affect a specific category of people. A study of 100 patients, revealed that â€Å"Cotard’s syndrome was diagnosed in 2 of 349 patients†¦taking into account only severely depressed older adult patients. In addition, the average of age of person studied was 52 years of age, however, the study also suggested that Cotard’s was occasionally described in children and adolescents (Debruyne, Portzky, Van den Eynde, Audenaert, 2009). Furthermore, according to Wani et al. , (2008), â€Å"this syndrome is typically related to depression and is mostly found in middle-aged or older people. In the analysis the following results were displayed: â€Å"depressive mood (89%), nihilistic delusions (69%), anxiety (65%), delusions of guilt (63%), delusions of immortality (55%), hypochondriac delusions (58%)† (Debruyne, Portzky, Peremans, and Audenaert, 2011). Diagnosis The diagnosis reveals a psychological and neurological aspect of Cotard’s syndrome. The â€Å"depersonalization phenomenon† as described in Debruyne, Portzky, Van den Eynde, and Audenaert, 2009, is referred to using German erminology leib (body for me) and korper (body as such), korper becomes more prominent than leib and the body less associated with the self (leib), depersonalization onset can then occur. However, in depersonalization, the patient feels as if he or she is dead (in difference of affect), whereas in Cotard’s syndro me, the patient is convinced that he or she is dead (lack of feeling). Cotard’s syndrome is often associated with parietal lobe lesions. Compared with controls, patients with Cotard’s syndrome have more brain atrophy in general and more median frontal lobe atrophy in particular. Cotard’s syndrome may be associated with multifocal brain atrophy and medial frontal lobe disease. Neurological assessments were performed and findings resulted in patients affected by â€Å"parietal brain dysfunction† and structural brain abnormalities. Recent discoveries have indicated that Cotard’s syndrome was associated with multifocal brain atrophy and interhemispheric fissure enlargement. The interhemispheric fissure enlargement means â€Å"parietal lobe lesions† (Joseph and O'Leary, 2011) or bending in the frontal and occipital regions and this abnormality also been observed in schizophrenic patients. Others have described and enlargement of the third and lateral ventricles. In one patient, the patient was diagnosed with a schizophrenia disorder and a left sided hypoperfusion in the temporal, parietal and frontal lobes. The medical term of hypoperfusion is defined as a â€Å"decreased blood flow through an organ† (Meriam-Webster, 2011). In addition, the patient experienced improvements of the inferior frontal and left hypoperfusion and there was evidence of decreased hyperprofusion of the left temporal lobe†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (cited in Debruyne, Portzky, Van den Eynde, and Audenaert, 2009). Treatments There are several methods utilized to treat mental health struggles. A patient can seek professional assistance by psychology or psychiatry therapy and/or the utilization of medication. If you lived in the 16th century with any undefined mental disorder, you were considered as â€Å"possessed by the Devil† and cast away to some godforsaken monastery dungeon in which monks would constantly pray for and exorcise you. The Catholic Church they used a methodical guidebook to describe all behavioral aspects and associations of witchcraft, satanism, etc. nd utilized this upon people who were suffered with mental or behavioral maladies, and it was not commonly understood in the Medieval and Renaissance periods. In the medieval ages, they were burned because they thought demons haunted the mentally ill. In later years, we willfully experimented on them, cutting into their bodies and brains to â€Å"fix them†, this was called, trepanation. The â€Å"evidence of trepan ation has been found in prehistoric human remains from Neolithic times onward. Cave paintings indicate that people believed the practice would cure epileptic seizures, migraines, and mental disorders† (Wikipedia, 2011). It is really disgusting and is the major reason that even today it is to some a badge of humiliation instead of just an illness. Complete recovery may occur spontaneously and suddenly as onset of Cotard’s syndrome. There are several reports of successful pharmacological treatment of Cotard’s syndrome. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) is considered an important treatment option in Cotard’s syndrome. It is noted, in Debruyne, Portzky, Van den Eynde, Audenaert, 2009, that young patients use of mood stabilizers should be considered because Cotard’s syndrome in this population is often part of a bipolar disorder. Successful treatment with ECT and the patient with underlying major depressive disorder resulted in recovery of left and right temporal hypoprofussion and normalization of profusion in the frontal cortex was reported after treatment with antidepressants (Debruyne, Portzky, Peremans, and Audenaert, 2011). Please be aware that people who have true mental illnesses do suffer. They want more than anything to be able to feel and function like other people and they will actively seek help. The reality is that certain medications and treatments help those who are suffering from these conditions. Conclusion Mental illness is not a modern invention. The mentally ill have been recognized in one form or another by every culture we have a record of. How they were perceived and what their value is what has largely changed. Some people do not retreat into their minds as much as they are supposed to, while others spend all their time there. What we eat and breathe and drink affects our health and our brain, and a healthy individual's brain tends to have more to work with and develop all the right chemicals and nerve sheaths. A good parent with their strong sense of empathy realizes that their child is a thinking, growing human being and will always need that light touch that points them in the â€Å"right direction† and prevent them from getting â€Å"lost†. The right nature and nurturing are essential for a healthy development. Some cases of these disorders I believe could be a simple lack of the ingredients to solve this chemical imbalance. Given that our brain is constantly changing accordingly with the times, a chronic chemical imbalance quickly becomes more than just that, as the brain has grown and changed around this shortcoming. The kind of understanding you wish people had for those with mental disorders would be a universal understanding for all if people would look into themselves and observe their own thoughts and behaviors. We are our best test subjects since we have full access to all the â€Å"data†, and by observing ourselves totally (mentally, developmentally, chemically) we can apply our understanding to others and learn from the experience. People need to care about how people's minds work in general, understanding â€Å"you guys† would come with the turf, and communication with our angry neighbors would be much more effective since we'd all see where everyone is coming from. Philosophers have long contemplated human happiness, and how to live a â€Å"good† life, in harmony with our own nature. The problem is that humans do not really know what makes them happy, and what they think will, or will not, and instead they find contempt and superficial pleasures they believe will satisfy them. As a result, some people will not live a good and peaceful life that satisfies the majority of people. The fact is not everyone needs medication, but there are those who do. Some need it temporarily, some for a lifetime. Some simply need therapy, and some benefit from dietary changes. I believe understanding is the highest ideal we should seek to attain. Understanding and being honest with ourselves about ourselves and applying our own understanding to others may help us see that we are not as different as we'd like to believe. I believe that sense of commonality with all human beings can generate empathy, compassion and ultimately peace in all of us. It is when we categorize each other, ourselves, and place value on those categories then we breed hatred, ignorance and fear. References Boyd, D. , Johnson, Paul, Bee, Helen (2009). Lifespan Development. (4th Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearsons Canada Inc. Cotard Syndrome. (2010). Disorders Central. Retrieved October 10, 2011, from http://www. disorderscentral. com/cotard-syndrome. html Debruyne, H. , Portzky, M. Peremans, K. , ; Audenaert, K. , (2011). Mind and Brain The Journal of Psychiatry. Retrieved October 6, 2011, from http://content. yudu. com/Library/A1t5r8/MindampBraintheJourn/resources/73. htm Debruyne, H. , Portzky, M. , Van den Eynde, F. , ; Audenaert, K. (2009). Cotard’s Syndrome: A Review. Current Psychiatry Reports. Retrieved October 6, 2011, from University of Calgary On-line Resources: http://www. springerlink. com. ezproxy. lib. ucal gary. ca/content/f43j790n7161432m/ Hypoperfusion. (2011). Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved November 5, 2011, from http://www. merriam-webster. com/medical/hypoperfusion Joseph AB, and O'Leary DH. (2011). Brain atrophy and interhemispheric fissure enlargement in Cotard's syndrome. PubMed. gov. Retrieved November 6, 2011, from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/3759917 Purse, Marcia. (2011). Delusions. About. com. Retrieved October 6, 2011, from http://bipolar. about. com/od/definingbipolardisorder/g/gl_delusions. htm Purse, Marcia. (2006). Schizoaffective Disorder. About. com. Retrieved October 6, 2011, from http://bipolar. about. om/od/glossary/g/gl_schizoaffect. htm Sorrentino, Sheila A. , Wilk, Mary J. , and Newsmaster, Rosemary (2009). Mosby’s Canadian Textbook for the Support Worker. (2nd Canadian Edition). Toronto: Elsevier Canada Urban Dictionary. (1999-2011). Zombie. Retrieved November 6, 2011, from http://www. urbandictionary. com/define. php? term=zombie Wani, A. Z, Abdul, W. Khan, Aijaz, A. Babe, Hayat, A. Khan, Qurat-ul, A. Wani, and Taploo, Rayneesa (2008). Cotard's syndrome and delayed diagnosis in Kashmir, India. International Journal of Mental Health Systems.

The Problem Of Police Brutality - 1646 Words

One of the biggest problems that plague America is police brutality. The job of the police is to protect the community they’re assigned to work in, from any illegal activity that occurs. However, there are officers who believe they are above the law. Police brutality has been a political oppression that has been occurring more many years. There’s been many cases of excessive force towards innocent civilians by an officer that has sparked a national outrage. Stephan Lendman of Media with Conscience said in his article regarding the matter that â€Å"Police brutality occurs multiple times daily across America.† â€Å"In big cities. In small ones. In urban areas. In rural ones.† John Wihbey and Leighton Walter Kille from JournalistsResourch.org reported that â€Å"Research has definitively established that â€Å"racial profiling† by law enforcement exists — that persons of color are more likely to be stopped by police.† However, it does not mean that Caucasians are subject to be victims of police misconduct. Most recently there’s been an increase of police brutality among the transgender community particularly black trans women. Police brutality will come to end if the law set in place against it is enforced more with the lawbreakers to be prosecuted to the full extent of the law as well as the requirement of body cameras for officers on duty. Police brutality is defined as â€Å"the use of any force exceeding that reasonably necessary to accomplish a lawful police purpose† (Gregory Fritz Umbach,Show MoreRelatedPolice Brutality Is Not A Problem1545 Words   |  7 PagesPolice officers are individuals who enforce the law upon their community to ensure that their citizens remain safe. In the past couple of years, officers of the law have been involved in acts of brutality that seem to go beyond the proper measurements of protection for their citizens. Policemen are supposed to protect their citizens from danger and from harm, not impose a threat on them. The fact that officers have a history of abusing their power indicates that their trust amongst the communityRead MoreThe Problem With Police Brutality1770 Words   |  8 PagesDiscuss whether you believe there is a problem with police brutality in America. What are potential solutions to reducing police use of force and brutality? 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Police brutality is defined as unmerited, excessive and aggressive abuse, police brutality is a phenomenon that causes irreparable harm to its victims. The abuse may be physical or psychological, and the victims can feel the effects of this abuse for a lifetime. These effects include notRead MorePolice Contaliality : The Problem Of Police Brutality1460 Words   |  6 PagesPolice Brutality needs to be addressed because sometimes police use too much force on suspects when there is no reason too. Most police brutality goes unreported due to suspects being afraid to speak up. Most police misconduct is making untrue statements and filing untrue reports. Some police think that citizens should always defer to them and their authority. Most suspects believe that they do not need to do what is asked of a police officer and that leads to police misconduct. 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Furthermore, there is no question that police brutality occurs. Moreover, generally when there are allegations of police brutality, there has been some type of underlying violent incident. In additionRead MorePolice Brutality And Crime Brutality833 Words   |  4 PagesPolice Brutality Police brutality is defined as the use of excessive or unnecessary force by police when dealing with civilians (What Is Police Brutality?). Recently, there have been a surplus of incidents involving police brutality. Cases like Michael Brown, Eric Garner, and Tamir Rice are examples of police brutality. All three of these victims ended up dead at the hands of police. Statistics show that, just this year alone, 1,013 Americans have been killed by cops (Cop Crisis). Social mediaRead MorePolice Brutality1569 Words   |  7 PagesPersuasive/Policy/Problem/Cause/Solution Central Idea/Thesis: Police brutality should be regulated with greater strength and objectivity. INTRODUCTION I. Police brutality is constantly made known to us all through mass media, but I hadn’t ever taken the time to truly grasp the severity of it until it hit close to home. A. Three weeks ago, a close family friend was brutally beaten in front of his children at a family gathering by the police. B. My purpose is to persuade my audience that police brutality should

Life And Death Of A Serial Killer - 1092 Words

Welcome to my world, where monsters exist. Some may beg to differ that monsters do not exist in real life but quite frankly they do. When I say monsters I’m not speaking on behalf of the ideal scary monsters that hide under children’s bed or in their closets. The monsters I’m referring to are serial killers that live and breathe the same air as us. In my opinion, Serial killers are sick psychopaths with no conscience, a damaged past, a lack morals and self-worth. After viewing the film â€Å"Life and Death of a Serial Killer† starring one of America’s first female serial killers, Aileen Wuornos; I began to wonder why do individuals become serial killers? What is so special about committing murders and what causes the urge, thrill and the desire to kill? What exactly is the reason behind it all? These questions constantly cross my mind. After learning about Aileen Wuornos childhood, I concluded that her upbringing was one factor that drove her to b ecome a serial killer. The other factor was basically the addiction and thrill regarding her mental competence. For example, the theories I selected to evaluate in the context of this defendant is The Life Course Theory and The Psychodynamic Theory. The Life Course Theory States that â€Å"Crime is a function of environmental, socialization, physical, and psychological factors. Each makes an independent contribution to shaping and directing behavior patterns.†Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck first developed this theory in the 1930’s. TheShow MoreRelatedFemale Serial Killers: Statistics and Research864 Words   |  3 PagesFemale Serial Killers: Serial killer is described as an example of a murderer who kills several individuals over a long period of time. While these people are usually male motivated by various psychological motives such as power, the number of female serial killers has increased significantly in the recent past. Unlike their male counterparts, female serial killers use less visible means of murder such as poisoning in order to keep under the radar and remain discrete (Gilbert et. al., 2003). SinceRead More Serial Killers Essay790 Words   |  4 Pages The nineteen-seventies was an incredible decade. It was a decade of change, one of freedom, a time for great music. It was also an incredible decade for shock, fear and serial killers. John Wayne Gacy, an amateur clown, was a pedophiliac homosexual. He tortured and killed thirty three little boys and stored their remains under his house. David Berkowitz, a.k.a. the Son of Sam, stalked New York City from nineteen-sixty-seven to nineteen-seventy-seven. He claimed to have been following a voice fromRead MoreSerial Murders And The Criminal Justice Field854 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction Serial killings/murders/homicides has been a topic of fascination since even before the. Today, news and media, the psychological field, and the criminal justice field find serial killings intriguing because of the abnormality and unlikelihood of a serial homicide occurring and being linked to one person. Serial homicides are known to be multiple killings by the same killer over a time period- varies from months to years. â€Å" INSERT BOOK DEFINITION† Some of the most infamous serial killers knownRead MoreWhy the People Are Interested in Serial Killers Essays1218 Words   |  5 PagesSerial Killers Serial killers have struck fear in the hearts of people, yet the public remains fascinated and intrigued by the crimes perpetrated by these individuals. There are several theories and factors that have been attributed to serial killers in an attempt to explain their behaviors. 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And althoughRead MoreTraumatic Life Experiences, Abuse, And Poor Coping Skills1228 Words   |  5 Pagestraumatic death experience forever changed Tommy’s life. After a traumatic experience, a chemical imbalance in the brain occurs; leaving this untreated can cause someone to become a serial killer. Traumatic life experiences, abuse, and an inability to have healthy coping strategies can lead to a chemical imbalance in the brain. Abuse, trauma, and poor coping skills combined can lead to the creation of a killer. Criminologists have identified several common life experiences that convicted serial killerRead MoreThe Mystery Of Serial Killers1214 Words   |  5 PagesSerial killers have unsuspectingly dwelled among society for as long as evil has been amongst the human race. The world would not be the same without these vile people. Yes, serial killers are awful human beings but there is something about them that has, and wil l continue, to be a topic of interest to the innocent. Serial killers are always talked about; in fictional movies, documentaries, books, speeches, dinner topics, the list goes on. The average, day by day people in society have always cravedRead MoreThe Characteristics Of The Serial Killer, By Dorothea Puente1327 Words   |  6 Pagesto hear everything the elderly lady, Dorothea Puente, was capable of. Investigators weren’t suspicious of her even after corpses were found on her property because she didn’t fit the typical serial killer profile. The average serial killer is a white male in his mid to late 20’s. More than 90% of serial killers are men according to research done by criminologists James A. Fox and Jack Levin, and among these 73% were white. Only 4% had graduated with a bachelor’s degree. Victims were 67% female, with

Compare and Contrast the Views of the State of Nature Held...

I shall start off by first defining the meaning of A State of Nature. As the likes of Hobbes, Rousseau and Locke wrote about it, it means man when he was natural in his state of nature, uninfluenced by society, and the temptations of today. There are no rights in a state of nature, only freedom to do as one wishes. It is a term used to illustrate the theoretical condition of civilization before the states foundation in Social Contract Theories. In the dictionary it is described as â€Å"a wild primitive state untouched by civilization.† Both Hobbes and Locke discuss the state of nature with the positives and negatives in mind. Thomas Hobbs wonders what life would be like without a government to keep ruling over all of us, and John Locke†¦show more content†¦He says all men are in a State of Nature until they make a special agreement which in turn makes them a component of a political society. â€Å"But I moreover affirm that all men are naturally in that state, and remain so, till by their own consents they make themselves members of some politic society, and I doubt not in the sequel of this discourse, to make it very clear.† (Second Treatise of Government, Page 13/14). Hobbs views A State of Nature in a different way, he views it as a State of War, in which everyman has to fight for himself, meaning that selfishness and self preservation would chair over morality and dignity. â€Å"...the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret machination or by confederacy with others that are in the same danger with himself.† (Leviathan). To Hobbs life without a Government would lead to this State of Nature or this State of War as he preferred. In order for man to live beside one another they would need to agree to a Social Contract. His book ‘Leviathan’ was written during the English Civil War and tells us of his doctrine for the groundwork of legitimate governments and societies. Hobbs was born April 1588 and went on the graduate from Oxford, as did Locke. From 1637 he considered himself a philosopher. Hobbs questions what life would be like without a Government, everyone having a right, in Hobbs view would lead to there being a break out of conflict, each man fighting againstShow MoreRelatedBriefly Explain What Is Meant by the â€Å"Scientific Revolution† That Took Place in Seventeenth Century Europe, and How It Marked a Departure from Ancient and Medieval Philosophy.1603 Words   |  7 Pagesof thinking brought about by the â€Å"scientific revolution† had on the way Europeans viewed mankind, society, and traditional beliefs? The discoveries and exploration of the world overseas became key new influence on the European views of human cultures and nature of the human beings. Although Europe was a prominent figure during that time, Europe began rooting its territories overseas to analyze its comparison. The influence of European expansion can easily be seen: the Indian societies of AmericaRead MoreThomas Hobbes And John Locke2190 Words   |  9 PagesHobbes versus Locke Thomas Hobbes and John Locke are both well known to be associated with the state of nature. However, the philosophers have extremely distinct views on how the state of nature should be lived out. Hobbes is a highly conservative and harsh in tone in his views of humans and how they react in a state of nature. For example, he believes that men are selfish and will act in a way that only benefits themselves. Locke, on the contrary, thinks that men are not out to get each other.Read MoreCriminal Charges And Its Effect On The Man s Life And The Destruction Of His Property2517 Words   |  11 Pagesmeans necessary. 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Robbins —San Diego State University Timothy A. Judge —University of Notre Dame i3iEi35Bj! Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Director of Editorial Services:

Jsbmha and Hipaa Case Study Free Essays

JSBMHA and HIPAA Case Study Appendix C University of Phoenix Axia College Week 5 How does HIPAA serve to protect patient rights? HIPAA protects any individual’s past their present and future information whether it be physical, mental or any other condition that affects that person. It also protects anything that identifies the individual involved, that would their name, address, birth date and Social Security number. Nothing should be discussed about any individual that an agency is helping. We will write a custom essay sample on Jsbmha and Hipaa Case Study or any similar topic only for you Order Now It should not be discussed with anyone who is not directly involved with the case even if that person works for the agency. If they are not involved then it should not be discussed. What areas of the JSBMHA did HIPAA compliance impact? HIPAA has a great impact on patients rights, all areas of the JSBMHA were affected by these two individuals. They affected the patients, and put the agency in an awkward position. They affected the agency, the grandmother could make others aware about what happened and this could affect the agency negatively. People who are involved with the agency could be made to feel uncomfortable about giving them any information. It would mean that information at the JSBMHA is not secure, the trust has been violated. What actions should the JSBMHA director take about the HIPAA violation? Explain your answers in detail. I feel that both individuals should be suspended, this is a serious violation. The have put the agency in a very bad situation and have lost the trust of the family. Jim knew better, he has been with the agency much longer then Betty, he should have advised her that she should not be talking about these people outside of the office. I think maybe Jim should get fired because he does no better, 20 years is a long time to be with a company and it is more then enough time to understand and know the rules. He was supposed to be an example to Betty, someone who she can learn from. Maybe the agency should make an example of him. They both violated the HIPAA law, but I think Jim’s punishment should be more severe. How to cite Jsbmha and Hipaa Case Study, Free Case study samples

Duality free essay sample

The methods of exposition can be in any one of the following forms: (I) Identification (ii) Definition iii) Classification Ova) Illustration (v) comparison and contract analysis (v) Analysis (I) Identification is defined as the action of treating something as the same as some other thing. It asks the question what is It? Or who is he? It Is a kind of pointing by means of language. Identification as be as simple as It Is an apple or he Is Mr.. or as elaborate as follows: The caramel mission just stands outside the village or Monterey, California. It Was founded by padre juniper Sera, who had come up from San Diego in sass. If Identification becomes elaborate, It tends to overlap with function or use of analysis, comparison or contrast. Sometimes it may be lost In other more interesting methods. (ii)Definition is a word derived from Latin. De means with relation to and flans means limit. A definition means the limiting of a word. Strictly speaking we can say that a definition is not of a thing but of a word. We have a right to know how a term Is used. A Definition Is any word or group of words that constitute a unit of meaning.That refers to one thing or idea. Knowledge of the thing is essential for making a definition regarding it. A definition is always cast in the form f an equation A is B. There will always be two terms in a definition: the to be defined and the definer. And the two terms are equated. To be defined -the defined. That Is, in any statement you can substitute one term for the other without changing the sense of the statement In any respect. The two terms are convertible. Take for example the following statement: A slave is a man.This proposition is true, but It Is not a definition. Why? Any statement about man is true of slave; but any statement about slave need not be true of all men. The two terms man and slave are not convertible. The definer man is larger than the to-be-defined slave and it includes it. Therefore the statement even though true, is onto definition. But look at the following example A slave Is a human being who Is the legal property of another. TLS statement Is a deflation, because the two terms, the definer and the to-be-defined are convertible.Convertibility of the two terms can be lost (a) when the definer is larger than the defined (A table is that piece of furniture on which we serve meal). Process of definition A definition indicates the class into which a thing may be put and then points out how it differs room other things in that general class. The process of definition is not arbitrary; it is the natural way a mind works. Consider, for example, the process by which we define a bungalow. Bungalow is a place of shelter, to begin with. But there are man-made shelters and natural shelters. Bungalow is a man-made shelter.But among man- made shelters there are houses for men and temples for gods. Bungalow is a man- made house. But among houses there are huts, one-room tenements and so-on. We are thus forced to define a bungalow by further limiting its reference. This process may seem to go on indefinitely. But in practice the giver of the definition can define only by reference to what his particular audience already knows or is willing to learn for the purpose at hand. 1. We cannot define a thing by itself. A statistician anybody who studies statistics is a circular definition which does not in any extend our knowledge. . While it is easy to define words like house, pond etc. In a few words or sentences, concepts like morality, liberty, conscience etc lead us to extended definitions involving comparison, classification, description, narration etc. 3. There is no single correct way to develop a definition. But most of the student definitions are of the genus species type, and so if he gets the central conception right that is, what the genus in question is, and what the differentiate so are, he can satisfactorily develop a definition.If the student wants to define a true patriot he can develop the definition, for example, as follows: A patriot belongs to the genus of those who make contributions to the well-being of the country. Now within this genus a true patriot must be differentiated from others belonging to the same class. Species (l) differentiate: Those who are intelligent contributors are differentiated from hose who contribute unwittingly (II) Differentiate: Those who are unselfish contributors are differentiated from those who contribute for selfish motives. Ill) Differentiate: Those who are Willing contributors are differentiated from those who contribute unwillingly. Thus a working definition a true patriot is developed as one who makes intelligent, unselfish and willing contributions to the well-being of ones country. Classification In the study of definition, we use the method of classification. It is a way of thinking in terms of a system of classes. A class is a group whose members have significant characteristics in common. What constitutes a significant characteristic may vary according to the interest involved in the classification. For example, a maker of co-cosmetics thinks of women in groups determined by religious affiliations. A system of classes is a set of classes ranging from the most inclusive down through the least inclusive. The class college students include those of voting age and those below voting age. The class those of voting age includes those interested in party A and those interested in party B, And so-on, with the result the class college students can be thought including all these sub-sets and forming a system. Requirements of classification 2. The sub classes under any class must account for all the members of the class.Use of classification Classification is simply a way of sorting out things. It is simply one way of thinking about the material of our piece of exposition so that we may give order to it. The kind of order we get comes from distinguishing the sub groups within a group. Illustration Illustration is one of the common ways of explaining an idea. Like definition and classification it is also a way of thinking in terms of classes. Definition is used in order to understand the particular by placing it in a class and differentiating it from the others of the class. Classification is used to arrange the particulars in terms of class or classes.Illustration is the method of using a particular in order to explain a class. Therefore the particular that is chosen for illustration must truly represent the chief qualities of the class. Purpose of comparison and contrast 1 . When we wish to present information about one item, we may do so by relating it to another item with which our audience is familiar. 2. When we wish to present information about both the items of the comparison or contrast, we may do so by treating them in relation to some general principle which would apply to both and with which our audience is familiar.For example we may review two novels with which the audience is not familiar by comparing and contrasting them against some general principle of fiction with/which the audience is familiar. 3. We may compare and contrast items with which the audience is familiar for the purpose of explaining some general principle or idea. How to present a comparison or a contrast? There are two ways of presenting comparisons and contrasts. 1. We may Lully present one item and then fully present the other item. Such a method of presenting will be appropriate when the points of comparison and contrast are f airily broad and obvious.Consider for example the way mixtures and compounds are compared in a chemistry text book. 2. We may present a part of one item and then a part of the other item, until we have touched on all the parts relevant to our comparison or contrast. Such a method of presentation is appropriate when a great many details are involved. Consider, for example, how you will compare the various aspects of the great tragedies of Shakespeare. 6. Analysis Analysis means dividing a whole into its component parts. How does analysis, then, differ from classification? Classification simply lists out the individual items in a class.Under classification a class is not considered as a structured whole and the individual items as parts making that structure. In analysis an object or an idea is considered to be a structured whole, its components organized in a particular way. The components are thought of as having a mutually supporting function in determining the nature of the structure of the A class exists as the idea of the qualities shared by a number of individual items- UT no one item or set of items belonging to the class is necessary for the existence In a structure there is an underlying principle that determines the relation among the parts.For example we classify the words into various classes know as parts of speech . But we analyze the structure of a sentence into its component parts. Methods of analysis are decided by the interests that prompt the analysis. Each man would perform his analysis. In terms of particular interest, and the interest prompting his analysis would decide the kind of structure which he took the object to be. Analysis may be regarded as the description of a thing by distinguishing its parts. Such descriptions are generally called technical descriptions. What are the differences between technical description and ordinary description? 1 .Technical description arises out of a demand for information about something. Ordinary description arises out of a demand for an immediate sense expression of the thing described. 2. Technical description tends to be enumerative. Ordinary description tends to be suggestive, selective and impressionistic. 3. Technical description analyses the characteristics of a type. Ordinary description usually deals tit a specific thing. Functional Analysis While a simple analysis contents itself with an analysis of a structured whole into its parts a functional analysis tries to show how the parts function together to produce the structure.It is not merely the parts, but the function of the parts in relation to a characteristic function of the whole thing that concerns us now. For example we can analyze a heart or a legislature into its constituent parts and proceed further to analyze the functional process of the mechanism as a whole. Here our chief concern will be with the stages of the process and not with the parts of the Achaeans. The parts are interesting only in so far as they explain the stages in the process. Once we are concerned with the stages of a process, we are dealing with sequence of events in time.That is we have narration, but narration for an expository purpose. Ordinary narration is used (1) to present an action (2) to give the sense of the event as experienced, and (3) to appeal to the imagination. Expository narration is used (1) to give information (2) to enlarge the understanding and (3) to appeal to our reason. Casual Analysis In dealing with some processes we often want to go beyond a mere account often want to go beyond a mere account of the stages in time sequence. We want to see what makes one stage lead to another. We make causal analysis. In causal analysis we try to answer to types of questions. . We either start with an effect or ask What caused this? 2. Or we start with a cause and ask Given this set of circumstances what effect will follow? So causal analysis can proceed both ways : from effect to cause or from cause to effect. Cause: Cause can be defined as the connection between events that enable us to say (1) without event A, event B would not have come about; and (2) whenever you have A you will have B. Cause: Cause can also be thought as a condition the necessary and placed in a complicated set of circumstances spreading in all directions.Sometimes the whole world may be thought of as an enormously complex of conditions for a single event. Consider for example the sound of an electric bell. It occurs in a complex texture of conditions consisting of a rod, a bell, electrical mechanism a button so on. Now what caused the sound? Any one of these conditions or all of them? This example is introduced only to show that it is difficult very often to isolate a single cause. But among the conditions, we always take someone as a cause.Here what condition is taken by as a cause is determined by our special interest the purpose for which we would like to use the knowledge of this one condition as the cause for the event. All this implies that we must select the cause responsibly. How do we reason about cause? 1 . The fact that something is merely associated with something else in time does not mean that is to be regarded as either cause or effect. 2. When we say that A is the cause of B, we are not merely referring to the particular case of a particular B, we are also implying that a general principle exists, that under the same resistances any A would cause a B.We imply a principle of uniformity. 3. In determining a cause we can reason about it by applying the following two negative tests: (a) A cannot be the cause of B if A is ever absent in any instance when B is present; and (b) A cannot be the cause of B if B is ever absent is any instance when A is present. To sum up: the expository style is a method of writing used to explain or interpret. It is employed to identify, to define, to classify, to illustrate, to compare and contrast, and to analyses.Or to put it another way identification, definition, classification, illustration, comparison and contrast, and analysis are the chief modes or methods of exposition. II Argument An argument means a statement or fact advanced to influence the mind, or to support a proposition. By its very definition an argument starts only when there is a conflict over the correctness of differing proposition. The purpose of argument is to make the other side change its mind, to resolve the conflict by an appeal to reason. To convince someone through argument means to find a common ground in reason, to find a standard of reason. 1.When a fact can be readily established by investigation, there is no need for argument. 2. An argument about a matter of taste is useless. 3. You cannot argue about something in general. So, what is an argument about? An argument is about a proposition. What is a proposition? A proposition is a declaration of Judgment, what the arguer holds to be a reasonable Judgment. It can be believed, doubted or controverter. Therefore all arguments are about propositions. To begin your argument you must state your proposition in clear terms. Now propositions are two kinds: 1 . Proposition of fact: This kind of proposition states that something is a fact. Here action: This kind of proposition states that something should be e done. Here you do not stop with the establishment of a fact but proceed further to indicate and prove the kind of action desirable on taking the fact into account. A proposition may contain a main point and other minor points related to the main point. When these minor points are related to the main point each of these has to be argued out as if they are single propositions. This is because the main proposition may raise various questions and the minor propositions may deal with these questions- the discussion and controversy over them.Each one of the minor propositions must be proved in order to get the main proposition accepted, that minor proposition is called an issue. In an argument we make use of evidence. Evidence can be in the form of facts or opinions. 1. Facts as evidence: (a) A fact as used as evidence must be a fact. It should not turn out to be a mistaken opinion on examination. (b) A fact must be verified or attested by a reliable source when used as a piece of evidence. (c) Facts can be verified by referring to some regularity in nature, to some pattern in nature; Facts can be established by testimony also. . Opinions as Evidence: An pinion to be used as a piece of evidence must be authoritative. Whether an opinion is based on authority, can be tested by referring it to an impartial technical expert or by an appeal to experience before accepting it. In other words opinions however authoritative are not so reliable as pieces of evidence as verified facts. This is so because; (a) Authority is often based on an appeal to success (b) An authority in one field may be considered as an authority on everything. (c) Authority has some relation to time.What was acceptable as an authority at one time may not be acceptable at another. (d) An authority may convince a reticular audience or a part of the audience, but not all. An argument is a process of reasoning, an effort to find out a common ground in reason, as we have already noted. What is reasoning. It is the process by which the mind moves from certain data to a conclusion. Now this process of reasoning can be done in two ways : 1. We can make the process from data to the conclusion through the method of induction or generalization. No argument which moves from some to all can give more than a, probability.All instances have not been observed, and after examining a few instances, we take the inductive leap and make a generalization. The validity of such inductive generalizations must be tested in the following ways. (a) Whether a good number of instances have been investigated. (b) Whether the instances investigated are typical instances. (c) Whether we could explain a negative instance which defines the generalization. The negative instance reduces the force of the generalization unless we can demonstrate that the negative instance is not typical and therefore need not be considered. . Another type of induction is by analogy I. E. , two things are alike in a number of important points, they will be alike in the point in question. But the validity of generalizations based on analogy must also be tested before being accepted. We must test : (a) Whether the two instances compared are similar in all differences between the two instances. Parallels: In addition to generalization and analogy we can also use a large number of parallels to strengthen our argument. But as with analogy and generalization, through citing parallels we can arrive only at probability.Deduction: unlike induction, deduction does not give probabilities, but within its proper limits aims at certitude. In deduction we start with certain assumptions premises); called axioms in geometry. Once our premises are true we can always arrive at a conclusion of certitude. Deduction is a Latin word; De means from; deduce means to lead to. That is to say, a deductively is leads from something to a conclusion. To think deductively is to work from a general motion to a particular application- that is to think by classes. Consider for example the following argument. God loves man. A slave is a man.God loves slaves. Step 1: We think of the whole mankind as one class whom god loves Step 2: We think of the class of slaves as being included in the class of mankind Step 3: Therefore we include that God who loves all men, loves slaves also, who are also men. Sometimes the form of the statement of a premise is confusing. The most ordinary cause of such confusion is the use of restrictive or exclusive element in the proposition, an expression such as all but, all expert, none but, etc. Example: None but the brave deserve the fair The statement at first glance seems to mean All the brave deserve the fair.But a little reflection shows that such is not the case; and that it means, All who deserve the fair are included in the class of the brave. That is some of the brave do not serve the fair. Slips in reasoning Confusion may arise from a slip in the process of reasoning. A lawyer once argued for his as follows: We know that all good men strive to provide well for their families. They work day after day for that purpose. All good men strive to be considerate and win the love and esteem of their families. They are beloved by their families. Well, I point out to you this mans long record of devotion to his family and to him. His argument can be restated thus: Good men are devoted to their families Mr.. % is devoted to his family Therefore, Mr. X is a good man. But we know that a man may be devoted to his family, but need not be good. In other words, the class of men devoted to their families is larger than the class of good men. The confusion has been caused by equating two non equal classes or non identical classes. To look behind the words and see what is necessarily in what. The use of terms like may be or perhaps does not count in this kind of reasoning. To be convincing, the conclusion must follow from the premise.Begging the question is a type of weakness to be avoided in argument. Begging the question occurs when the arguer assume something to be true which really needs proof. Example: The unsanitary condition of the slaughter pens is detrimental to health. The argument is about whether the condition of the slaughter peers is detrimental to health. But the use of unsanitary in the proposition means detrimental to health. The question that is supposed to be at stake has been begged. Ignoring a question: An arguer ignores the question when he introduces any consideration that will distract from what is really at stake.Non-sequitur means using an argument which does not prove. The phrase means it does not follow. Example: William Brown doesnt drink or smoke, and so he ought to make a good husband. Fallacies and refutations: If we can point out a fallacy in an opposing argument, we can refute that argument while writing an argumentative piece; we can even anticipate several opposing arguments and refute them. The most important thing to bear in mind in deductive argument is the avoidance of weak links. Lastly very argument must try to persuade somebody. An appeal to emotions may be very important in the strategy of presenting an argument.The problem of persuasion is central to the presentation of an argument. Ill Description Description is the kind of discourse concerned with the impression that the world sakes on our senses-indicating the qualities of and actions suggests to the imagination the thing as it comes immediately to an observer. Description can be technical or suggestive. In technical description the tendency is to give generalized information. In suggestive description, though facts are involved, the passage is not organized about an enumeration of them. The passage is organized with a view to evoke feelings with which an object, place etc. s associated. Suggestive description gives more weight to impression or feeling than to information. Suggestive description tells us what impression the world makes on our senses. Good descriptions are the result of sharper discrimination in registering these sense impressions. One should cultivate ones powers of observation. Even when writing about an imaginary object one will have to call on the store of impressions drawn from actual observation. To be successful in writing descriptive passages one must expand ones vocabulary, especially ones knowledge of words that indicate differences in perception.The writer must learn the art of typing his perceptions and his words together. The loud noise must cease to be a loud noise for him, and must become the crash, the bang, he thud, the clatter, the clash, the boom, the bong, the clang, the howl, the wail, the scream etc. Consider the following, The apple is red (simple description) The apple is slick looking (excites the sense of touch) The ice is glassy (Highly suggestive) Suggests slickness, hairiness, transparency, brightness) The clouds were cottony (suggests texture as well as appearance) But a writer should not totally lose himself in long descriptions.Description is subordinate to narrative. It is usually subordinate when it appears mixed with some o ther kind of disclosure. Nevertheless without the resources of description most kinds of imposition would be bare and unconvincing. One of the important lessons that a writer has to learn is the art of rightly balancing his descriptive passages so that they add pep to the discourse. An important principle of description is to evoke one dominant impression of a person, place or anything. Some mood or feeling provoked by the concrete details stir our imagination. We grasp both the object and the mood or atmosphere it evokes.Best example is to be found in the opening lines of hamlet. Within twelve lines Shakespeare without mentioning the word ghost creates an atmosphere or eerie dread and uneasiness Just by presenting the soldiers who guard the castle and making us hear their excited talk. A description should not aim at telling us about the feelings but at creating them within us through vividness and immediacy of presentation. A description is the enactment of a feeling or attitude not a simple naming ritual. Description work by selection. You cannot Just use any word that comes to you. You must choose your words.An inexperienced writer tends to overload his description with adjectives, forgetting the fact that suggestion is often better than enumeration. Study the following passage. The womans face was fat and shapeless, so fat that it looked very soft, flabby, grayish, and unhealthy. The features were blurred because her face was fat. But her as they moved from one face to another while the visitors stated their errand Here the writer has piled up adjectives, trying to specify each of the qualities of the womans face and eyes, and the result is a rather confused impressions.Now study the original passage as written by Faulkner: Her eyes lost in the fatty ridges of her face. Looked like two small pieces of coal pressed into a lump of dough as they moved from one face to another while the suitors stated their errand. Here Faulkner has dispensed with most of the adjectives for the word dough implies soft, flabby, grayish, shapeless, blurred and (when associated with flesh) unhealthy and the word coal implies block and glistening.By using these two concrete words dough and coal (like two small pieces of coal pressed into a lump of dough) Faulkner succeeds in creat ing a highly suggestive piece of description. When a writer does use adjectives, he should be sure that each adjective really adds something essential to the description. Texture and pattern in Description Texture means the observation of details and the relation of such details to a dominant impression of the described and the choice of word in giving the description. Pattern means the structure of the description which is often connected relation to the structure.Simultaneous presentation is impossible in description. We can have only a presentation in sequence. So a writer must provide a pattern into which the reader can fit the details. Now descriptions can be from a fixed point of view or from an impressionistic point of view. Impressionistic descriptions are often loosely constructed. They pick up a detail here and a detail there. This easiness is dangerous. It is easy to be tedious, to accumulate too many details, to lose all sense of structure and of a dominant impression.To be effective in describing an impressionistic point of view we have to be careful that the details are telling, are sharp, In fact it demands greater art to appear artless. It is the point of view that determines the pattern and imposes a unity on a descriptive passage. A writer may compare the rather complicated object he is describing with something simpler and more, easily visualized, and this simpler object is then imagined as providing a kind f frame image into which he can fit the details of the original thing to be described. Cape Cod is the hand and bended arm of Massachusetts: the shoulder is Buzzards Bay; the elbow, or craze bone at Cape Ameliorate; the wrist at Tour; and the sand first at province town-behind which the state stands on her guard, with her back turned to the green Mountains, and her feet planted on the floor of the Ocean, like an athlete protecting her bay boxing with North East Storms, ever. And anon, heaving up her Atlantic adversary from the lap of earth, ready to thrust forward her other fist, which helps guard while upon her breast at Cape Ana. -Thoreau The frame image first and then the details. This can also be reversed.The details, a swarm of them; baffle the reader and then the frame image is introduced which will reduce all the details to order. IV Narration Narration is the kind of discourse concerned with action, with events in time, with life in motion. It tells a story and it is to [distinguished from expository narration which appeals to our understanding. Consider the following: (a) Gorge Barton, a poor boy about twelve years old, was forced to sell the mastiff, which he had reared from a puppy and was much attached to, for two reasons: First having lost his Job, he could no longer buy proper food for a dog of such size.Second, after it had frightened a child in the neighborhood, he afraid that someone en would poison it. This passage involves an action, the fact that the boy sells the dog, but its primary concern is with the cause of the action and with what the action illustrates rather than with the immediate presentation of the action in time. Now consider the following: (b) George Barton owned a mastiff which he had reared from a puppy. He loved it very much. But he lost his Job and could no longer buy proper food for it.Then the dog frightened a little child of the neighborhood, who was eating a piece of bread. George was afraid that someone would poison the dog. So he sold it. Here, as before, the cause of the action is given, but now they are absorbed into the movement of the action itself. When we wrote in (a) that George sold the dog for two reasons, we violated the whole nature f the narrative-the movement in time-because we made the causes of the action, not the action itself, the primary interest.